Police corruption Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Police corruption - Assignment Example It is marked by simultaneous occurrence of mishandling of official capacity and mishandling of personal attainment. It is carried out by violation of state or federal laws or the constitutional rights of the individual. Corruption may also involve material benefit or a profit gained through abuse of public authority. Police corruption is a pervasive phenomenon, yet it is not bound by ranks. It is typified by such acts as bribery, extortion, receiving or selling stolen property and aiding or abetting or carrying out drug pedaling. Broadly, it may also include indulging in such acts as violence and brutality, fabrication or destruction of evidence, racism, or favoritism. Knapp Commission describe three basic kinds of corruption; bribery, shakedowns and mooching . Police may use subtle to extreme methods to indulge in corruption. However, no single reason can be ascribed to the existence of police corruption (Gainer and Miller, 2008). Wicershkam Commission was appointed by President Herbert Hoover in 1929. George W. Wicershkam headed the National Committee on Law Observation and Enforcement, which was popularly called the Wicershkam Commission. Wicershkam Commission was charged with investigating the causes of widespread criminal activity and finding causes of violations of national prohibition policy. It was the first of its kind national level enquiry into the causes of crime and law enforcement. The commission presented its report in 14 volumes in a study carried out from 1931 to 1932. The commission handed out a severe indictment of police thus confirming the presence of misconduct and corruption in its functioning. Apart from the use of violence and brutality it also pointed out the instances of bribery, corruption, coercion, fabrication of evidence and entrapment. Knapp Commission or the Commission to Investigate the Alleged Police Corruption was appointed under the chairmanship of Whitman

Discussion 2 Week 5 Market Research Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion 2 Week 5 Market Research - Assignment Example For instance, a government agency, CDC plans to purchase a medical equipment which would address health needs of a population at risk in a certain state. As such, it is in the most appropriate capacity, in terms of knowledge, resources, and skills to discern the best research methodology to use in justifying that purchasing the equipment would benefit the identified population and achieve health standards and goals of the federal government. 2. Analyze the importance and explain the value of a market research plan in the acquisition and distribution of supplies and services. Support your position with examples. Explain which aspect of the market research plan is likely to be the most valuable for those seeking to acquire a company. A market research plan enables the government agency to identify in a more in-depth presentation and structure, their needs in the acquisition and distribution of supplies and services; as well as the manner within which these identified needs are to be satisfied through the results generated from the research. As emphasized, â€Å"agencies use the results of market research to determine if sources are available to meet their needs, especially any sources providing commercial or nondevelopmental items† (OConnor, 2007, p. 174). The market research plan is revealed to have no prescribed format; but should contain, at least, the following aspects: â€Å"explanation of the acquisition’s background and purpose; description of the agency’s minimum needs, in terms of function and performance; desired schedule of delivery; list of small business and other sources who were contacted, including the methodology used for compiling and refining the list of potential vendors; discussion of customary commercial practices; identification of price ranges discovered; and a description of available commercial or non†developmental items† (U.S. Small

Yakult Marketing Plan

Yakult Marketing Plan INTRODUCTION: History of Yakult Yakult Honsha Ltd. was founded in 1930 by Dr. Shirota. For over the past 75 years, the company has expertise in the field of beneficial bacteria. The main activity of Yakult is to introduce a wide range of healthy foods, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. In 1930, Dr. Minoru Shirota, who was conducting his research in a microbiology lab at the Medical Faculty of Kyoto University in Japan, became the first person in the world to create a strain of lactic acid bacteria beneficial to human health. This bacterium was named after Dr.Shirota Lactobacillus casei Shirota strain (Our History, 2010). In Malaysia, Yakult is still a young and growing company. Yakult Ace was only launched in Malaysia in 2004. Yakult (Malaysia) Sdn.Bhd. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Yakult Honsha, Japan (Yakult-Malaysia, 2010). Vision Yakult’s vision is to push forward with the quest for new possibilities for probiotics in the academic and medical fields. Mission Yakult’s mission is to contribute to the health and happiness of every person throughout the world through the pursuit of excellence in life sciences and the excellence in life sciences and the study of microorganisms. Philosophy SHIROTA-ISM Preventive medicine A healthy intestine leads to a long life A healthy life for all We contribute to the health and happiness of people around the world through the pursuit of excellence in life science in general and our research and experience in microorganisms in particular (Philosophy, 2010). Issues and challenges In the recent years, several major issues and challenges were faced by Yakult. Yakult is facing a shortage of stock to meet the demand of the people around the world. It is reported that there is high stock turnaround (Cruz, 2013). SWOT ANALYSIS: Strengths Dynamic Research Development power Retrieved from the annual report of (â€Å"Global Yakult†Ã¢â‚¬â€ Entering a New Growth Stage, 2013), one of the strengths portrayed by Yakult is its dynamic research and development power. With its 252 medical doctors and scientists, they actively pursue research aimed at applying bacteria effectively in the prevention and treatment of many diseases. The RD Division tails basic research in life science meant at applying and developing basic materials in pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics and other fields. Besides that, Yakult does their research and development at the Yakult Central Institute for Microbiological Research, which is situated in Tokyo, Japan. The aim of this central is to the study is to the use of beneficial bacteria in the promotion of health. Therefore, there are continuous improvements inYakult’s products that can improve consumers’ health for today and in the future. Good distribution channel Another essential strength of Yakult is the unique distribution channel byYakult Ladies. It is a type of delivery service that delivers Yakult cultured milk drinks directly to the consumers’ home through a network of Yakult Ladies. According to managing director Kouichi Nakayama (abhishek_g, 2012), door-to-door sales through the Yakult Lady System are more profitable than supermarkets sales.In Japan, more than 60% of Yakult products are distributed by Yakult Ladies. They deliver door-to-door every day, from rural areas to high-rise buildings in the city. However, in Malaysia, Yakult Ladies is also available in delivering of goods. However, it is only available in certain place such as Klang Valley, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, Penang, Kuantan, Ipoh and few other areas. The best thing is there is no minimum order or delivery charge for the products (Fong, 2007). Weaknesses Less product choice for customers in terms of flavours The first weakness of Yakult is lack choice of flavours. There are only two flavours available which are Yakult Ace and Yakult Ace Light. Unlike its competitors, such as Vitagen and Nutrigen, these two brands come out with products with variety of flavours which will attract more people to buy their products. As Malaysia is a multiracial country, different races of people have different tastes. Thus, Malaysians usually prefer to choose their drinks from a variety of flavours. Storage difficulty Second is storage difficulty. The products are fermented milk drinks which contains active bacteria under low temperature. However, if the temperature increases, the bacteria will eventually become inactive that will turn the taste sour. This is because the bacteria will begin to make lactic acid when the temperature drops (FAQs, 2010). Therefore, refrigerators are necessary. However, consumers who do not own a refrigerator will find it a problem. By the way, it will also lead to a storage difficulty for retailer outlets with little storage capacity as they still have other products brand they need to keep. This will cause an imbalance of stock availability during different time of the outlets. This problem also influences consumers’ purchase intention that does not have a refrigerator. Smaller packaging and higher price compared to competitors Another weakness of Yakult is that the packaging of Yakult is small compared to its competitors. One bottle of Yakult contains 80ml cultured milk drink while competitors such as Vitagen and Nutrigen serve in 125ml per bottle (TK-eShop, 2010). Besides that, according to Yakult, it is fine for consumers to drink more than 80ml of Yakult cultured milk. Therefore, consumers who drink more than one bottle may go for other competitors’ product who sells in larger packaging (FAQs, 2010). Yakult products are sold in a bundle of 5 bottles, which is the same with its strong competitors such as Vitagen and Nutrigen. However, the Yakult cultured milk drink’s price is higher than the competitors, who offer their drinks in bigger bottles too. Opportunities Trends in health concerns Few studies shows that more and more people are concerned about their health problem and health awareness is becoming increasingly important nowadays (Rollins, 2008); (Senterfitt, Long, Shih, Teutsch, 2013). This is an opportunity for Yakult since Yakult has already scientifically proven that their products are good for health. Consumers are turning to dairy products, yogurts and so forth to start their day. In Yakult’s advertisements, the company informs consumers that their products are probiotic drinks which are good for people’s health. This increases health awareness of the people. Besides that, Yakult’s brand recognition also increases among consumers during this process. The creative thinking of Yakult’s advertisement helps in promoting health by emphasizing beneficial bacteria for intestinal balance of consumers which ultimately leads to good health. Increase in number of convenience stores and hypermarkets According to (Wong, 2007), the number of convenience stores and hypermarkets are increasing. It means that Yakult’s distribution channel will also increase. Yakult’s product can be sold in more and different places. Consumers will also find it easier and more convenient to buy Yakult’s product from the hypermarket or convenience stores nearest to them. Threats Intense competition Yakult faces a tough competitive environment in the market. There are similar healthy foods and also probiotic drinks in the market. Yakult’s main competitors are Vitagen and Nutrigen that has strong brand recognition in the Malaysian market. Vitagen is the first cultured milk to be introduced in Malaysia which is also known as the number one cultured milk in Malaysia. As for Nutrigen, it also provides cultured milk which is similar to Yakult and also Vitagen. These competitors have their own competitive advantages compared to Yakult in terms of the flavours they offered which can suit different consumers’ taste with their different flavours available. Low switching cost Besides that, consumers in Malaysia do not incur high switching cost if they choose to switch to other category of healthy foods. Yakult’s price offering is also a threat as they offer in higher prices and also smaller packaging compared to competitors. Consumers who are price sensitive may choose competitors’ product instead of Yakult’s. Thus, Malaysians can switch to another drinks or brands whenever they want if there are substitute products available with lower prices. They can also shop favourably and also choose selectively without sticking to one supplier. Competitors use aggressive marketing technique Yakult’s competitors uses aggressive marketing plan to promote their products such as advertising in traditional media like television advertisement, radio, social network sites and forth, especially Vitagen. With this, competitors are more recognizable to consumers than Yakult. As Yakult does not usually do aggressive advertisements to promote their brand, consumers are more likely to be aware of competitors’ brand than Yakult. Besides that, the marketing plans that are not heavily invested are usually advertisements that are easily duplicated. Decrease in consumer’s purchasing power Millions of middle-class Malaysians are suffering from low consumer spending growth while increasing in state controlled electricity and gasoline costs since 2008 (Koon, 2014). As a result, mid to higher end choices of beverage suffered a decrease on the sales (Consumer spending to slow down in 2014, 2014); (Koon, 2014). The economic downturn has contributed greatly to the slow growth of the purchasing power as Yakult is not a necessity in consumers’ daily life. Yakult is a probiotic drink, where consumers who desire for a better health can consume it continuously and not a necessity for consumers to drink them as a must in order to survive. INDUSTRY ANALYSIS BY USING PORTAL FIVE FORCES a) Threat of new entrance Yakult probiotic beverage falls into a broad and safe market, especially the awareness and concern of people on health are increasing. Probiotic drinks are favourable and popular for consumers and bring a considerable return to the company. This has made the cultured milk market seems attractive to the market, where it attracts many outsiders that tries to enter this industry. However, the capital cost to enter this industry is relative high compared to other beverage industry. As probiotic beverage requires friendly bacteria such as lactobacillus acidophilus that are hard to produce and refine it to produce a drinkable beverage. Potential entrants who wish to enter this industry need to invest heavily on Research and Development as well as pharmaceutical department in order to produce a probiotic beverage. As Yakult has been proven by many professors such as Dr Ko Okumura (Juntendo University, Japan), Dr. Haruji Sawada and others, the credibility of Yakult beverage is high, which result to a high entry barrier for new entrants as well. Furthermore, potential entrants need to make sure they are able to differentiate their product from Yakult in term of higher nutrition or lower price or both. If firms are not able to come out with a better beverage than the existing beverage in market, then there is no point they enter the market as this will deficit the company. In a nutshell, the entry barrier for new entrants to enter this industry is high. Yakult is facing low threat of new entrants. b) Threat of substitute Porter’s threat of substitute definition is the availability of a product that the consumer can purchase instead of the industry’s product with similar benefits. Eventhough Yakult is the pioneer of probictic, substitutes products are still able to replace them. Customers can easily replace Yakult by purchase bottle of probiotic capsule, probiotic powder or probiotic drink. Example of probiotic supplements is Kordel’s Protect probiotic powder, which cost around RM70 for 30 sachs. Yogurt drink and yogurt powder are also substitutesthat can replace Yakult products. The more substitute the products are, the more competitive the industry is. In the long run, Yakult may suffer less profit. In this case, there are few substitute products in market that can replace Yakult products, so they are facing high threat of substitute products. c) Bargaining power of supplier Bargaining power of supplier occurs when buyers are too many but only few suppliers in the market. When it is too costly to change suppliers, the bargaining power of suppliers is relative high. The Yakult Plant in Calamba city, Laguna, is able to produce 1.6 million bottles of Yakult a day. In order for them to produce a bottle of 100ml Yakult Probiotic beverage, they will need few raw materials such as skimmed milk powder, sugar, and dextrose is blend with sterilized water to create a sweet, milky solution. While all these raw materials are not unique or highly differentiated product. Which means Yakult can get them from few suppliers, as there are not only one supplier in the market that supplies sugar, skimmed milk powder and dextrose. The suppliers industry is not dominated by small number of firm, thus the bargaining power of supplier is not harmful for Yakult. Furthermore, Yakult uses backward integration, where they have their own manufacturing factory to produce their probiotic beverage. The main ingredient in the probiotic dairy beverage, liveLactobacillus caseistrain Shirota is carefully cultured and tested in Yakult own laboratory. In other words, Yakult does not rely on outsider to get their main raw material, but they produced it themselves in their own laboratory and factory. In a nut shell, Yakult is immune with the power of supplier, as they having few suppliers instead of rely on one supplier. d) Bargaining Power of Buyers Buyer power is one of the forces that shape the competitive structure of an industry. When the power of buyer is strong, they can pressure the sellers to lower down the prices, improve product quality or better service. In contra, weak bargaining power of buyer will often makes an industry less competitive and increases the profit potential for seller. In this case, Yakult are facing high bargaining power from their buyers. Firstly this is because there are available substitute and large range of probiotic drink in the market that offered similar benefit to the customers, for example Vitagen, Nestle Yogurt drink, and probiotic supplement beverage. Yakult is not the only firm that produce probiotic daily beverage. Customers can easily switch to other product that available in the market, customers switching cost is low. Secondly, customers are price sensitive towards the beverage. If Vitagen probiotic drink is having promotion and the prices are much cheaper than Yakult Ace drink, customer will simply switch to purchasing Nestle yogurt drink. Thirdly, Yakult probiotic daily drink is not highly differentiated and standard. It become a daily basis for some consumer, thus consumer can switch to other brand that provide the same function as Yakult. In a nutshell, the bargaining power for Yakult buyer is relatively high. e) Threat of rivalry The intensity of rivalry among competitors in an industry refers to the extent to which firms within an industry put pressure on one another and limit each other’s profit potential. High intensity of rivalry means competitors are aggressively targeting each other’s markets and aggressively pricing products. While low intensity of competitive rivalry makes an industry less competitive and increases profit potential for the existing firms. The rivalry in probiotic beverage is minimal. Firstly this is because few competing firms are roughly doing the same size and serving the same amount of customers. Yakult, Vitagen, Nestle are sharing the almost similar market share. Secondly, there are lack of product differentiation for the existing brand in the market, Yakult, Vitagen, Nestle are offer the almost similar probiotic daily beverage in the market. This three probiotic beverage different in some ways but they do share the similar characteristic as well, which are help strengthen immune system and smoother the digestive system. Thirdly, customer brandloyalty is not significant, customer who consume Vitagen beverage might switch to consume Yakult on some day, and same goes to consumer for Yakult. In a nutshell, the threat of rivalry is minimal for Yakult Company. REFERENCES abhishek_g. (12 June, 2012). Yakult. Retrieved 17 June, 2014, from Slide Share: http://www.slideshare.net/abhishek_g/yakult-13298536 Consumer spending to slow down in 2014. (9 January, 2014). Retrieved 26 June, 2014, from The Sun Daily: http://www.thesundaily.my/news/925542 Cruz, H. (13 January, 2013). Vision, Mission, Objectives, Goals, Prob. its Background. Retrieved 30 June, 2014, from Prezi: http://prezi.com/mvkfvph4nkz0/vision-mission-objectives-goals-prob-its-background/ FAQs. (2010). Retrieved 15 June, 2014, from Yakult: http://www.yakult.com.my/html/faqs.html Honsha, Y. (2013). â€Å"Global Yakult†Ã¢â‚¬â€ Entering a New Growth Stage. Japan. Koon, C. P. (7 January, 2014). Malaysians Seen Curbing Spending as Living Costs Surge: Economy. Retrieved 26 June, 2014, from Bloomberg: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-01-07/malaysians-seen-curbing-spending-as-living-costs-surge-economy.html Philosophy. (2010). Out Philosophy. Retrieved 10 June, 2014, from Yakult: http://www.yakult.com.my/html/our_philosophy.html Rollins, C. (16 December, 2008). RAISING HEALTH CONSCIOUSNESS UTILIZING â€Å"UNNATURAL CAUSES† SERIES AS STIMULUS . Retrieved 30 June, 2014, from https://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-121808-155128/unrestricted/Chris_Rollins_Health_IQP_Final_v3.pdf Senterfitt, J. W., Long, A., Shih, M., Teutsch, S. M. (January, 2013). How Social and Economic factors affect health. Retrieved 26 June, 2014, from Social Determinants of Health: http://www.publichealth.lacounty.gov/epi/docs/SocialD_Final_Web.pdf TK-eShop. (2010). Cultured Milk Drink. Retrieved 30 June, 2014, from tk-eshop: http://www.tk-eshop.com/about-us/articles/articles/vitagen-nutrigen-yakult Wong, L. C. (2007). Development of Malaysia’s Agricultural Sector: Agriculture as an Engine of Growth? Retrieved 28 June, 2014, from ISIS.org.my: http://isis.org.my/attachments/386_Territorial_Disputes_in_East Asia.pdf Yakult. (2014). Profile. Retrieved 13 June, 2014, from Yakult: http://www.yakult.co.jp/english/ir/management/profile.html Yakult-Malaysia. (2010). Yakult Malaysia General. Retrieved 23 June, 2014, from Yakult: http://www.yakult.com.my/html/yakult_my_general.html

Using Clostridium botulinum as a Biological Weapon Essay -- Terrorism

Fatal Dilemma: Using Clostridium botulinum as a Biological Weapon Ever since the dawn of biotechnology, the world had to face a new dilemma: bioterrorism. Using biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc., bioterrorism attack aims to cause illness of death in people, animals, or plants as a method of warfare. Used throughout history, biological weapon serves as a pivotal role in disarming an army. Botulism toxin, known for the most toxic substance in the biological world, has been used throughout history as a biological weapon. The bacteria Clostridium botulinum causes botulism causes botulism disease, which is a serious paralytic illness that strikes all age groups. The clinical forms of botulism include foodborne botulism, infant botulism, and wound botulism. Botulism, if left untreated, is fatal; however, even treatment with antiserum can not provide full recovery. Botulism is rare a disease. Therefore, if anyone is diagnosed with foodborne botulism, investigation of food supply must be carried out promptly; for investigation of the botulism-diagnosed-individual's surrounding is the only method of detecting a potential bioterrorism attack. With the continuous advancements in biomedicine follows a continuous proliferation of bioterrorism, which uses biological agents for malicious purposes (Anderson 2). More specifically, bioterrorism is a method of terrorism that intentionally releases or disseminates biological weapons that may be in natural occurring or human-modified form (Botulism- Definition). Although bioterrorism is considered as a recent dilemma, the use of biological weapon predates recorded history, during the ancient times where biological toxins were extracted from plants and animals and ap... ... Oct 2001. Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Department of Health and Human Services. 21 Jul 2007 . Fong, I.W., and Ken Alibek. Bioterrorism and Infectious Agents. New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2005. Hurlbert, R.E.. "Biological Weapons: Malignant Biology." 1997. 21 July 2007 hurlbert/micro101/pages/101biologicalweapons.html+no+tool+or+piece+of+kno wledhe+has+an+innate+moral+context&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us >. Knobler, Stacy L. , Adel A. F. Mahmoud, and Leslie A. Pray. Biological Threats and Terrorism. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine, 2002. Shapiro, Daniel S and Alice S. Weissfeld. "Botulism Toxin." Sentinel Laboratory Guidelines for Suspected Agents of Bioterrorism 21 July 2007 .

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development Essay

INTRODUCTION Human development is a highly complex concept among concepts of human sciences. Developmentalists claim that every single event in each stage of childhood development is extremely significant since any reaction to the behaviors in developmental stages has a vital meaning which is realized later in human life.Therefore I can state that every single action in childhood developmental stages has a certain impact on human’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. Science of human development is effected in a large extent by six broad theoretical traditions which are psychoanalytic viewpoint, the learning viewpoint, the cognitive-developmental viewpoint, the information- processing viewpoint, the evolutionary viewpoint, and the ecological systems viewpoint. In this research report, I am going to focus on Freud’s Psychosexual Theory, Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development and the Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. If I were to state basically what I concentrate in this research report; on the stages of three human development theories which belong to Freud, Erikson and Piaget. I will compare these development theories through analyzing each stage of them while addressing some experiences which I have in my life or I have come across in my environment. The purpose of comparing these three human development theories is basically to figure out their implications to parenting and early childhood education by analyzing the characteristics of the stages of these theories in childhood development. Through this research, I will be able to define the concrete examples of characteristics human development theories’ stages in my life, which means that theoretical knowledge will be shaped in my mind through personal experiences. ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT: A FOCUS ON CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS TO PARENTING AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Erikson’ Psychosocial Theory of Development is a model which is based on eight stages. These stages are also called as crises in human development,because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).( McLeod,2008). Each stage is vitally important in human lifespan as each of them results in specific characteristic features and certain virtues in personality. The first stage is trust versus mistrust; it occurs during the first year. What I have experienced about this stage is that the role of caregiver is highly important since the possibility whether the result of this stage will be positive or negative depends on the caregiver attitude towards infant completely. If I were to give an example; in care centers where babies without family are cared can not take sufficient and consistent affection from caregivers. this situation causes these babies to have a perception that the world is a place which is full of unreliable people, that is to say, they develop the sense of mistrust to world. The second stage is autonomy versus shame and doubt which occurs in 1-3 years. In this stage, child is the beginning of the gaining his independence that is autonomy. An example of what I observed on child in this stage ; my cousin who is 2-year always is in fight with his parents as he always rejects his mother’s help while eating, and he insists on wearing his clothes on his own. These are manifestation that he tries to get the autonomy. What his parents should do in this phase is to allow him to try provide his needs while scaffolding him, which results in a high confidence and independency in child’s personality. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities.( McLeod,2008) Third stage is initiative vs guilty occurring around age three to age five. When comes to its implication on parenting and early childhood education; In this process, children initiate many activities, they organize games on they own. and the most significant characteristics feature is asking questions. I remember that when my brother was around five years old, he was always asking me a lot of questions about everything he saw. I was fed up with that mess of questions. However, I was trying to respond him as I was aware this fact that if I do not respond him, he will stop ask questions and he will repress his questions on his mind after a while ,which prevents him from developing cognitively, socially and emotionally. According to Erikson’s theory, if child is stopped to act and ask freely, they will develop feelings of guilt. So, setting a balance between initiative and guilt is highly important in this stage. Fourth stage is industry vs. inferiority occurring age 6 to age 12. In this stage, the dominant characteristic feature is productivity. Child starts to produce; after reading he can sum up, moreover, he can make up stories, and new games. He develops new skills which include cognitive and psychomotor skills. As for its implication on parenting and early childhood education; When children are encouraged in their efforts to make, do or build practical  things (whether it be to construct creepy crawlers, three houses or airplane models-or to cook, bake or sew), are allowed to finish their products, and are praised and regarded for the results, then the sense of industry is enhanced. But parents who see their children’s efforts at making and doing as â€Å"mischief,† and as simply â€Å"making a mess,† help to encourage in children a sense of inferiority.( Elkind,1970) FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT: A FOCUS ON CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS TO PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Freud Psychosexual Theory of development is based on five stages in which human personality develops. If all stages are stepped on appropriately, the personality will be healthy. In some situations, person can not pass the stage successfully, he can get stuck in one of these stages. the point which I focus on is the implications of Freud’ Psychosexual theory of development to personality development. I will apply my experiences in order to make the stages clearer. The first stage is oral stage occurring from birth to age 1. If I were to explain briefly oral stage; the prominent feature of oral stage is that child satisfies himself through oral way, that is, he gets pleasure from sucking and biting. How should parents behave towards the child in oral stage?If, however, a baby’s need for pleasure through the mouth is not satisfied or over satisfied at this stage, it can lead to problems of trust and independence in adulthood. Over-satisfaction at this stage can lead to over dependence on others while deprivation can lead to a highly suspicious, argumentative nature. Orally fixated adults can become smokers or tend to over-eat when stressed.( Cook,2006 ) I remember the time when my youngest brother was about one years old, he used to stick to pacifier all day and night. Whenever my mother would take the pacifier out his mouth, he would scream and cry till my mother would give the pacifier back. What I observed on my brother would cause me to think about the reason behind it. I would not put a meaning on the love of pacifier of babies. I would think that the pacifier is not filled with any food, so it does not feed the babies. Then why are they stick to pacifier? After I learned about the oral stage of  Freud Theory, I came to realize the developmental base of my brother’s desire for pacifier. The second stage is anal stage occurring from age 1 to 3. Like other stages, parenting style has a very immense impact on child’ personality during anal stage. If parent’s attitude towards child is too permissive, child develops a reckless, disorganized, not self-disciplined character. If parent’s attitude towards child is too strict, child develops a strict, rigid and obsessive character. The third stage is phallic stage occurring between age 3 and 5. What I have observed is that during phallic stage children get satisfied with touching genitals. They get pleasure from the stimulation of genitals. When comes to parenting, I remember that my mother used to warn my youngest brother when he took off his pant in order to touch his genital.It is at this stage that parents who react with revulsion to the child playing with themselves and order them not to do it again anxiety may be produced that may cause problems in adulthood such as frigidity, impotence, promiscuity and at the least, a prudish attitude.(Cook,2006) The last important point is that realizing sex roles occurs during phallic stage. The next stage is latency stage occurring between age 5 and 12. Sexual energy is suppressed by the development of ego and superego during latency stage. Child gets in contact with peers in social environment. the crucial point is that during latency stage the sexual energy does not vanish however it is directed to other areas such as hobbies, interests, social interactions, and social activities. Teacher should facilitate children’ interest and hobbies in order to convert their energy in a healthy way. Parents need to be provide children with a environment which is conducive to spend energy for hobbies and interest appropriately. PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: A FOCUS ON CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Piaget’s Theory is based on four stages.The first stage is sensorimotor stage  occurring from birth to age 2. How should parents or caregiver approach the child in sensorimotor stage? Parents and caregivers need to be aware of this fact that children in this age can not grasp the meaning of the symbols. The all knowledge they have is based on physical interactions and experiences. That’s why, parents need to make children understand concepts throughdemonstration or visualization. Parents/ caregivers should let children in this stage do trial and error since they learn and have experiences through trial and error. The second stage is preoperational stage occurring between age 2 and 7. How should teachers approach the child in preoperational stage? Teachers should be facilitator for their learning.They should provide concrete and visual materials and prompts in order to encourage their understanding. Children in this stage start to develop complex cognitive skills.Teachers should provide them a learning environment according to their level in order to make them develop cognitive skills appropriately. The third stage is concrete operational stage occurring between the ages of 7-11 years.What I observed is that the child who is very egocentric in preoperational stage changes his behavior in concrete preoperational stage.If I were to give an example, my cousin used to hate sharing his toys with his brother when he was 5 years old. In his age 8, I realized that he started to share his color pencils with his friends at school. So, I came to this point that he got rid of his self-centeredness and egocentric manners in this stage. Intellectual development in this stage is demonstrated through the use of logical and systematic manipulation of symbols, which are related to concrete objects.(Wood and Grossniklaus, 2001) If I were to act from these characteristic feature of this stage, the approach of teacher should be in a way that they should provide children concrete, and visual materials by which children can extend their logical thinking and broaden their perception appropriately. CONCLUSION First of all I should state that I got pleasure with what I learned during preparing this report. I came up with many realizations about the early education after analyzing three different approaches to human development. In my opinion, the most important result of this report is that I put meanings on what I have experienced and observed on behaviors and manners of children.I categorized the children’ behaviors I observed into a certain stage of each theory. Another important result of this report is that considering these theories’s implications on childhood experiences and early childhood education made me realize the strong connection between development stages and caregivers’s/ parents’ /teacher’s role in human development. As I stated before, every single event in each stage of childhood development is extremely significant since every reaction to the behaviors in developmental stages has a vital meaning which is realized later in human life. Get to conclusion, the last important result of the report is that I realized the importance of the relation between instruction/education programs and development stages. I deduced that the level, activities, and materials included in instruction programs must be definitely in consistent with each stage of development in order to result in success in personality and education life. REFERENCES Wood, K. C., Smith, H., Grossniklaus, D. (2001). _Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Developmen_t. In M. Orey (Ed.), _Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology_. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/ Elkind, D. â€Å"Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Man.† _New York Times Magazine_. 1970. Web. 18 May 2014. Mcleod, S. (2008). _Erik Erikson._ Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html Wagner, K.V. (2010). _Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development._ Retrieved from http://www.allbookez.com/pdf/14l5en/ Cook. M. (2006). _Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development._ Retrieved from http://valen1971.webs.com/Assessments/Freud’s%20Theory%20of%20Psychosexual%20Development.pdf

Are Cell-Phones Dangerous? Essay

Technology is one of the most powerful factors that affect our daily life and routine. As part of it we have the well known and worldwide used: Cell-phones. A 2004 MIT survey said that cell phones were ranked as the one invention that people hate the most, but cannot live without. It beat out the alarm clock and the television. Cell-phones have become one of the most useful devices around the world; however, they have drastically and negatively affected our communication and privacy manners. In addition, they have created an incredible amount of mortal accidents around the world due to distracted drivers. Driving Accidents issues As a first issue regarding this remarkable invention we find the famous: texting while driving. Victoria police Const. Ryan Wilson, a member of the traffic division who chairs the B.C. Association of Chiefs of Police traffic safety committee, cited a case a few years ago where a woman was killed in what was believed to be a case of texting while driving. Police sought court orders to get her phone records, which showed that she was indeed texting at the time of the crash (Jeff Bell 1). It is almost impossible to keep your eyes focused on the road while giving attention to the screen of your cell phone. It makes your sight go off the street entirely for a couple of seconds, when anything mortal can happen. Apart from texting it is common for many people to call while hands are on the wheels. But, is it considered as dangerous as texting? The study, by University of Utah researchers, adds to a growing body of evidence that conversing by phone while behind the wheel can be hazardous. Talking on a cell phone while driving is as dangerous as driving drunk, new federally funded research shows (Jeff Bell 1). Despite the fact that everybody drives with one hand on the wheel, the process of our brain focusing on the conversation limits our capacity to respond properly to any minimal situation on the street. A 2005 study published in the British Medical Journal looked at crash data for 456 cell phone subscribers in Perth, Australia, who had an auto accident that required medical attention. The study, which essentially confirmed a similar 1997 study conducted in Toronto, concluded that drivers talking on their phones were about four times more likely to be involved in an accident than those who were not on the phone. Another highly publicized 2006 study from the University of Utah concluded that drivers who talked on cell phones were as impaired as drivers who were intoxicated at the legal blood-alcohol limit of 0.08. The study, however, found that using hands-free devices did little to improve drivers’ performances (Nancy McVicar 1). The use of them has been so far the best and only solution that diminish the risk of a mortal worldwide issue. It is not deniable that cell phones have caused several traffic deaths and injuries. As a matter of fact, either calling or texting while driving is among the most dangerous activity around the world. Despite some studies have shown that hands-free devices reduces the risk, they do not entirely finish with the problem. Frank Drews, one of the Utah researchers who has published earlier studies showing drivers on the phone are at higher risk of accidents, stated: â€Å"We have shown in previous studies there is no difference between hand-held and hands-free. There is a more dangerous component when people are dialing the phone or searching for the cell phone in the briefcase on the seat beside them, but what distracts people when talking on a cell phone is the conversation, not holding the phone (Nancy McVicar 1). People need to star being conscious and profit technology for our benefit not for our death. Communication Issues In another subject, cell phones have revolutionarily transformed our way to communicate to other people. We used to be anxious to see our friends, our family, our partner etc. However, people are so attached to their devices that even the most important and delicate conversation is spoken by phone. â€Å"And more than anything, we are discovering just how far and wide mind and body can be separated, because now we can be where we aren’t, no matter where we are,† said Martin Miller, a reporter from Los Angeles Times (Martin Miller 1). Despite the fact that cell phones clearly make our long relationships easier they completely destroy our closer ones. John Petersen, founder and president of the Arlington Institute, a future-oriented think tank in Arlington, Virginia. â€Å"What it is done is to change our view of reality. You remember not so long ago when making a long-distance phone call was a big deal? You would say, ‘I’m calling long distance,’ and you were supposed to drop everything? Now it is not a big deal anymore to get a call from anywhere on the globe† (Martin Miller 1). So, in fact not only our communication with close people is being jeopardized but the long distance treatment is also being affected. It is so easy to make long distances phone calls that we have stopped doing them. In spite of becoming every time easier to do them, we loose motivation and intrigue, which lead us to hesitate about the call and leave it for another moment. Besides the effect that cell phones has on any long and short relationship, there is a more concerning issue regarding communication, the face-to-face conversation. Cell phones are also reshaping our social habits and attitudes, say sociologists. According to Martin Miller, the portable phones, depending on their usage, can by turns be a shield against loneliness or create isolation. This would be the case when you cannot really focus on what you are doing, or what are you talking about due to the distraction that this portables create in us. Michael Zey, a sociologist at Montclair State University in New Jersey said: â€Å"They can reduce the need to create bridges. It allows people to exclude the people who may be in front of them and to intera ct with people they already know who are someplace else† (Martin Miller 2). We have become so dependant on these devices that they have created an inner necessity to be in touch at any time with family and friends. Even though this might sound as a good thing, it is not. People are not calling other people constantly with little regard to the content of the conversation. A recent three-panel cartoon in the New Yorker jokes around with some cell phone users apparent need to always be on the phone. The first panel shows a businessman entering a train talking on a cell phone with the caption, â€Å"I’m boarding the train.† In the next, which shows the man on the train, he says, â€Å"I’m on the train.† And in the last one, showing the cell phone user leaving, he says: â€Å"I’m leaving the train (Martin Miller 2). The urge of having knowledge of everything that someone else is doing is slowly killing our general communication with the outside world. â€Å"I think people have become more dependent on being in constant touch with others,† said Edward Tenner, author of the 1997 book â€Å"Why Things Bite Back: Technology and the Revenge of Unintended Consequences† (Martin Miller 2). In general cell phones have changed negatively our close and far relationships. In addition, our face-to-face communication has also been drastically affected. In all of the cases they interrupt any situation happening at the moment and move your head to a whole other situation in another place. â€Å"Cell phones and what is coming is what is driving globalization,† says Petersen, a former staff member of the National Security Council at the Reagan White House. He cited: â€Å"I think what we’re seeing is an almost biological evolution of the species. I think we’re building a global nervous system and brain† (Martin Miller 3). Privacy Issues Moving to our last but not least issue about cell-phones, we have a worldwide lost of privacy because of these modern devices. â€Å"Technology has just exploded. It’s so sophisticated now and it’s very easy to utilize these different technologies to keep tabs on a person and find out where they’re going,† said Gina Pfund, chief assistant prosecutor of the Domestic Violence Unit in Passaic County (Hannan Adely 1). How easy is to take your partner’s cell-phone and scroll down the text messages, e-mails and personal contacts? This has become a habit for many people. Although it is extremely convenient to have all your information, addresses, pictures, among others inside one little piece of metal, it is extremely dangerous to have your intimate life registered in something that anybody can take and see. Therefore, people are not only searching into their partner cell phones but also buying small artifacts that can record and play back all you do with your phone. Hannan Adely from New Jersey Media Group Inc said: â€Å"The person watching or listening is often a family member and frequently a suspicious or controlling partner. They have scanned Facebook pages, viewed online web-browsing histories, and examined cell phone records for proof. But some take it a step further, planting spyware on smart phones and computers† (Gary Marx 1). Now our problems are not only cell phone but also the accessories that have been created for them. Even though Richard Drobnick, director of the Teaneck-based Mars & Venus Counseling Center, said some forms of prying can be justified because â€Å"people need to know the truth,† this new invention is more seen as a tragedy than a relieve. â€Å"All of the above examples of information collection are perfectly legal. But the most troubling aspect of the problem for privacy advocates is that in many cases consumers don’t immediately recognize these actions as invasions of privacy,† said Gary T. Marx, a Californian lawyer (Gary Marx 1). He also empathized: â€Å"They might have a vague concern over certain technologies, but consumers often don’t understand how technology is being used to gather, analyze, and distribute data. Even among more insightful users there is great disagreement about how to view new technologies, and consequently there is disagreement on what constitutes misuse† (Gary Marx 1). Despite the ignorance that the world is having by thinking that lost of privacy because of cell phones is not an issue, our standard of conduct must go beyond what is legal if privacy as we know it is going to be maintained. Conclusion In conclusion, cell phones might be considered as one of the most demanding device in our society; however, the negative side of them is enormous. Mortal accidents, lost of communication and lost of privacy are concerning problems that people should be conscious of. Although some people are aware of the situation, the necessity to use cell phones is bigger than our rational mind. â€Å"So one explanation for our result is that cell phones may be dangerous,† stated Saurabh Bhargava, professor of University of Chicago economics (Walberg Matthew 2). They certainly are more dangerous than people think. If we continue to use portable phones the wrong way, death statistics will keep raising as well as our personal relationships will keep ending. Be a part of the future, not a problem to it! Works cited Adely, Hannan. â€Å"Cellphone Spying Getting Easier for Abusers, Stalkers.† The Record. 02 Jan 2012: A.1. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 25 Nov 2012. Bell, Jeff. â€Å"Distracted Driving Blamed for Growing Number of Traffic Deaths.† Times- Colonist. 29 Aug 2012: A.3. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 12 Nov 2012. Marx, Gary T. â€Å"Privacy Lost.† California Lawyer. Jan. 1999: 48+. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 25 Nov 2012. McVicar, Nancy. â€Å"Study: Calling While Driving As Dangerous As Driving Drunk.† Sun- Sentinel (Ft. Lauderdale, FL). 29 Jun 2006: n.p. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 13 Nov 2012. Miller, Martin. â€Å"Withdrawing into Our Cells.† Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, CA). Sept. 19 2002: E1+. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 18 Nov 2012. Walberg, Matthew. â€Å"Is Driving, Using a Cellphone As Bad As Thought?.† Chicago Tribune. 26 Mar 2012: 1. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 12 Nov 2012.

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Whatever Barnes Noble.com - Tis: A Memoir (10 cassettes) ... heartwarming, heartwrenching, and noble as Angela's Ashes. I bought the book the ... as he, inspiring. Despite that characterization, however, the book is ...shop.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?salesurl=Rshop.barnesandnoble.com/ booksearch/results.aspisbn=0671045555 - 65k - Cached - Similar pages dOc DVD Review: Angela's Ashes (1999) ... shooting, filming with kids, and characterization and emotional background. Feature-length ... Grade: A- Final Comments: Angela's Ashes is a wonderful film ...www.digitallyobsessed.com/showreview.php3?ID=311 - 33k - Cached - Similar pages Scott Von Doviak Information about review author Scott Von Doviak ofcs.rottentomatoes.com/author-1251/?letter=A - 36k - Cached - Similar pages The Robert Carlyle Articles ... Acting is about interpretation and characterization. I felt that to listen too ... arisen about how much of "Angela's Ashes" is literally true; McCourt calls ...www.geocities.c om/Hollywood/Hills/4603/frank.htm - 16k - Cached - Similar pages New Releases: December 31, 1999 ... is too scrupulously faithful (see: Angela's Ashes), he risks creating a ...Dublin Pearse railway station

Outsourcing And Its Advantage And Disadvantage Essays - Outsourcing

Outsourcing And Its Advantage And Disadvantage Essays - Outsourcing Outsourcing And Its Advantage And Disadvantage Introduction : Nowadays, many organisation are outsourcing their non- core activities to an external agents. Distribution is one of these activities as distribution consider as a non-core activity for many firms. Although, there are many advantage for outsourcing, there are also risks and disadvantage in this process. In this essay I would explain the term outsourcing and explain why organisations are preferring to outsource some of its functions in todays environment. Also, in this essay it has been tried to analysis the advantage and disadvantage of the outsourcing process and its risks towards the organisation. The word outsourcing could be described as the contractual relationship with a specialised outside service provider for work traditionally done in-house. Outsourcing could also be defined as the use of external agents to perform one or more organisational activities. In the last decade or so there has been a trend, particular among large scale companies, to hand over the whole or part of the distribution function to the external agents. One should emphasis that outsourcing is an issue that is not specific to distribution. Many other organisational functions, such as information system, building maintenance, etc, have been outsource for many years in organisations. There are different reasons for organisations outsourcing their distribution function. More and more organisations today face a dynamic and changing environment. This, in turn, is requiring these organisations to adapt. Competition is also changing. The global economy means that competitors are likely to come from across the ocean as from across town. Successful organisations will be the ones that can change in response to the competition and changing environment. In other words, they will be flexible. Therefore, todays organisation stand in sharp contrast to the typical bureaucratic organisations that have many vertical levels of management and where control is sought through ownership. In such organisations, Research and Development are done in-house, production occurs in company-owned plants, and sales and distribution are performed by the companys own employees. To support all this, management has to employ extra personal including accountants, human

All the Details Regarding Article of Positive Research Accounting

  Discuss about the   Defense of Positive Accounting Research ? This report contains all the details regarding article of positive research accounting . In this article various facts and figures of positive accounting theory have been given. There is several methodology and models have been shown which reflects how humans would make decision in different situation based on prepared accounting frameworks. This article consist various models and frameworks which are useful to determine the effectiveness of positive accounting research practice. With the help of this article, writers, researchers and other viewers could easily evaluate the merits and demerits of positive accounting research. This article contains the information on the human behavior and their cause and effect relation in positive accounting research practice. There are several viewpoints and assumptions have been taken into consideration which reflects the best accounting practice and standards set program to mitigate different accounting practice. In addition to this there are several casual theory and comprehensive viewpoints which reflects how accountant and auditors could come up with the common decision in preparing financial statements (Brown, Preiato, and Tarca, 2014). Positive ontology and epistemology is the main major factors which provides how casus and effect relation could be used to determine the accountant and auditors decision making factors in positive accounting research practice (Ahmed, Neel and Wang, 2013).   In addition to this, this article contains details regarding reciprocal behavior, Self interest theory and Positive ontology and epistemology which are used to make interpretation of qualitative data. For instance, reciprocal behavior helps in determine the cause and effect relation. Self interest theory also provides that persons will take care of their own interest before the interest of organization as a whole.   In addition to this, behavior of free will establishes that each and every human take decision on the basis of his external and internal factors which result into variation of their decisions. These different decisions aroused due to different perceptions, factors and other models (Celestine and Maher, 2014). These models have helped accountants and auditors to classifying, recording and summarizing task and provide them understanding to cover all the requirement of positive accounting practice in effective manner (Way mire, 2014). Now it could be inferred that this article consisted with different human behavior based on the different factors and circumstances (Everett, Neu, Rahaman and Maharaj, 2015). There are several questions which could be taken into consideration for preparing this article. How positive accounting research practice could be different from Intellectual program? What are the affecting factors which establish cause and effect relation in positive accounting research? Which theories and models have been used in positive accounting research? What are the possible effects of using ontology and epistemology in positive accounting research practice in positive accounting research? This article is consisted with several models and frameworks which could be used in this positive accounting research practice. There are other models such as hypothetical test, ontology and epistemology frameworks. These all theories have been used to define the human behavior and other associated factors. (Engle and Hunton, 2015). As per the views of Everett, Neu, Rahaman and Maharaj, 2015 it is given that auditors and accountant are two different persons who use different critical understanding to make effective decisions in their accounting works. There are several theories such as behavior of free will, cause and effect relation and other accounting frameworks which helps accountant and auditors to make their decisions effectively.   It is observed that if accountants are using behavior of free will in their accounting models and decision then it would surely result into conflict of interest between auditors and accountants. There are other models and frameworks which could be used in accounting frameworks in this article either in Americana or international which reflects standard models for measuring human behavior. There are other several basic concepts and theories in positive accounting theories such as reciprocal behavior and behavior of free will. In this article main focus in made on Darwin’s theory of evaluation which reflects qualitative assessment and measurement in positive research. This Darwin’s theory of evaluation could be bifurcated into following several parts. The first phase of Darwin’s theory of evaluation is related with collecting primary and secondary qualitative data. These collected data is deployed by Auditors other stakeholders to evaluate on what basis accountant has prepared financial statement (Dyckman and Zeff, 2014). In Darwin’s theory of evaluation, focus is made to identify type- 1 errors (Li, 2015).   It is considered that Type-1 error is not possible to avoid for accountant as per followed realistic approach. It is observed that if auditor uses realistic model then it would result into basic level of errors (Type-1 errors) (Deegan, 2017). There are other several models which have been used in positive accounting research practice such as Hypothetical test and ontology and epistemology (Slater, et al. 2014). The main significant of this positive research accounting is related with how accountants make their decisions. This research has accompanied with the details which reflects the human behavior and their cause and effect relation. This study has been prepared with a view to provide the core aspect of positive accounting research. There are several important factors which have been reflected in this research. In addition to this, there are several factors which have been identified in this research that provides how positive accounting research practice could be useful for establishment of harmonization in accountant and auditors behavior. It is also observed that there are several frameworks and models used in this report which provides how positive accounting research practice could be used by accountant for effective accounting practice.   Ã‚  There are several other rational and personal theories and practices have been used in positive accounting practice which is core factors f or influencing human behavior. There are other rational and personal practice in positive accounting research have been evaluated which reflects the human behavior and factors which influence accountant behavior (Guan, 2014). In the end, it would be inferred that there are several methods and models in positive accounting research which are very useful for establishment of harmonization in accountant and auditors behavior. In this article various methodologies and theories have been used which only provides standards set based on the normal accountant behavior. Therefore, only after considering some theories and models it would be hard to gauge the human decision making process. In addition to this, there are several models and theories have been used in these articles which are consisted with hypothetical test and other auxiliary assumptions. Therefore, it becomes complex to determine the level of certainty of positive accounting research functions. Authors in this article have also not suggested any possible level of escalations and remarks which should be used to readers to evaluate the certainty and uncertainty of models used in this article for positive accounting research practice. In addition to this, the most critical factors in this article are related with the behavior of free will. It is observed that if a human is having free will to take his decisions then it would result into several cont radictions and complexity. For instance, if accountant has used a spate decision making process in his accounting frameworks then auditors may have conflict with his accounting practice which he opted as per his free will. This article is also accompanied with large set of information and cumbersome process which made hard for researcher to understand the facts and human decision process models in effective manner. There are limitation which could be evaluated such as relevancy of data, justification for assumptions and models taken and set format and path for determining human decision making (Bedtime, Darrough and Xue, 2017). Human decision varies person to person and based factors. In addition to this, in order to justify the facts and theories used in this article hypothetical test have been taken into consideration. This hypothetical test make effectiveness on the result oriented human decision behavior. These all theories and models are the critical factors to establish harmonization in the accountant and auditors behavior in their accounting decisions. The main impact on positive accounting research aroused from the type one error. This type of error is unavoidable and accountant and other auditors tend to make these mistakes. As per the positive accounting research, these types of errors could be mitigated if double cross check system is implemented. In addition to this, interchangeable factors given in various models and theories such as Darwin’s theory of evaluation, behavior of free will and cause and effect relation provides how humans take their decisions and what complexity they face in their accounting decisions. In the end it would be inferred that all the test and statistics under the null hypothesis is based on auxiliary assumptions which is considered as limitation of this article. All the accountant and auditors should take less assumption and hypothetical data to avoid possible mistakes and errors. Ahmed, A.S., Neel, M. and Wang, D., 2013. Does mandatory adoption of IFRS improve accounting quality? Preliminary evidence.  Contemporary Accounting Research,  30(4), pp.1344-1372. Bertomeu, J., Darrough, M. and Xue, W., 2017. Optimal conservatism with earnings manipulation.  Contemporary Accounting Research,  34(1), pp.252-284. Brown, P., Preiato, J. and Tarca, A., 2014. Measuring country differences in enforcement of accounting standards: An audit and enforcement proxy.  Journal of Business Finance & Accounting,  41(1-2), pp.1-52. Deegan, C., 2017. Twenty five years of social and environmental accounting research within Critical Perspectives of Accounting: Hits, misses and ways forward.  Critical Perspectives on Accounting,  43, pp.65-87.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dyckman, T.R. and Zeff, S.A., 2014. Some methodological deficiencies in empirical research articles in accounting.  Accounting Horizons,  28(3), pp.695-712. Engle, T.J. and Hunton, J.E., 2015. Retraction: The Effects of Small Monetary Incentives on Response Quality and Rates in the Positive Confirmation of Account Receivable Balances.  AUDITING: A Journal of Practice & Theory,  34(3), pp.201-201. Everett, J., Neu, D., Rahaman, A.S. and Maharaj, G., 2015. Praxis, Doxa and research methods: Reconsidering critical accounting.  Critical Perspectives on Accounting,  32, pp.37-44. Fang, J., Haw, I.M., Yu, V. and Zhang, X., 2014. Positive externality of analyst coverage upon audit services: Evidence from China.  Asia-Pacific Journal of Accounting & Economics,  21(2), pp.186-206. Guan, K., 2014. Corporate Growth, Audit Quality and Accounting Conservatism: Empirical Evidence from Public Companies in China.  Journal of Accounting and Economics,  5(005). Klemstine, C.F. and Maher, M.W., 2014.  Management Accounting Research (RLE Accounting): A Review and Annotated Bibliography. Routledge. Li, X., 2015. Accounting conservatism and the cost of capital: An international analysis.  Journal of Business Finance & Accounting,  42(5-6), pp.555-582. Slater, R.A., Koren, S., Ramot, Y., Buchs, A. and Rapoport, M.J., 2014. Interpreting the results of the Semmes?Weinstein monofilament test: accounting for false?positive answers in the international consensus on the diabetic foot protocol by a new model.  Diabetes/metabolism research and reviews,  30(1), pp.77-80. Smith, M., 2014.  Research methods in accounting. Sage. Waymire, G.B., 2014. Neuroscience and ultimate causation in accounting research.  The Accounting Review,  89(6), pp.2011-2019.

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Deontological Ethics - Essay Example This project aims to shed more light on deontology and virtue ethics, which are some of the principles on which philosophy is founded. The term deontology is derived from two Greek words: Deon, which means duty and logos, meaning study. Contrary to aretaic theories that normally focus on the character and personality that is instilled within us, deontology is based on the deontic theories which normally guide and asses some of the decisions that we make in our day-to-day activities. In making such decisions; nevertheless, we are expected to take into consideration the aspects of the society that are morally required, morally forbidden and are morally permitted. Concisely, we can refer to deontology as the moral aspects of our life that guides some of the decisions that we make. Deontological theories can be classified into several categories, which range from agent-centred, patent-centred, contractarian, as well as deontological theories based on Kant. The agent-centred theories hold the belief that decisions should normally be made based on objective reasoning (Burnor and Raley 426). The patent centred theories, on the other hand, argue that decisions should normally be based on the rights of various people within the society. In as much as some aspects of these theories are different, they share the ideology that choices cannot always be justified by their effects. This is to imply that no matter the moral outcome of some decisions, they should not be carried out. Unlike consequentialism, which does not take into consideration some of the aspects of society, the deontological theories have largely been appreciated. It is because they provide those who are involved in the decision-making process to consider various aspects within the society including friends, family members as well as some of the projects that are being undertaken by the community. Similarly, scholars have often argued that the deontological theories are not too demanding. This is

Report based on the Aye Choonz music service Essay

Report based on the Aye Choonz music service - Essay Example The Palz Choonz service epitomizes what is known as the â€Å"peer-to-peer† file sharing. Users can upload music files from their devices and by connecting to the Aye Choonz system, allow other users to retrieve the file on demand. Users can choose the music to make available and can also obtain electronic copies of music that any other person may have chosen to upload to the system. Using the â€Å"MP3† technology, music files are duplicated, transferred and stored for efficient reproduction and sound recording in a computer-readable format. The copyright and patent concepts were both included in the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (CDPA) 1988 (s. 4(1) and.5 A (1)). Under Article 1, (s. 4(a), of the constitution, the DPA secures for a limited time period to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writing and Discoveries In the case of Napster the Ninth Circuit also held that Napster was not protected under Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studio, Inc., â€Å"the Betamax case†, because of Napster’s â€Å"actual, specific knowledge of direct infringement.† Napster argued that the existing Audio Home Recording Act 9(17 U.S.C.  §Ã‚ §1001-10) protected them under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act’s safe harbor clause (17U.S.C  § 512). ... (25 marks) Customer database brings about the issue of privacy, which is a complex legal issue. The Electronic Communications Privacy Act is tasked with protecting users. Websites such as Aye Choonz collect significant amounts of personal and identifiable data that can trigger liability risk (s.3 (1, b, i)). Users5 consent to the collections of names, physical or email addresses and credit card information through forms are archived on the site. By Aye Choonz allowing third-party advertiser’s6 access to the database, it means that these organisations can track users’ browsing habits. Using cookies information is collected as a user surfs the web and feeds the information to a web server. The Aye Choonz vendor site will send cookies which are basically an identification number to the client’s computer, where it is stored in a file on the client’s hard drive and serves as a digital identifier tag that notifies Aye Choonz whenever the client re-enters the Buy Choonz site (s.3 (1,c).. According to The Electronic Communication Privacy Act7 sites like Aye Choonz can be liable for allowing commercial organisations to place cookies on users’ hard drives. Aye Choonz can also face the Common-law Privacy tort8 which is a common law doctrine of personal privacy and includes four grounds of tort (s.3 (5, 6)). Mc Veigh V. Cohen, the U.S. Navy obtained personal information from America Online regarding an anonymous user who described himself in his AOL user profile as a gay military officer (McVeigh, 1998) Proponents of online profiling contend that collecting user data allows sites to improve services. Aye Choonz should disclose data sharing with a third party to users even if the data is

Health care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 27

Health care - Essay Example Since the system is already fair, the government should not take what the rich have worked hard to get. All the money that the rich give as tax goes to the welfare of all the people. The rich should therefore, be treated with equality with the poor (Musgrove, 2012). Though the government may claim that the rich have more vested interests in the nation, they are humans and increasing their tax rates on the basis of their health care consumption would mean that they have more health care demands than the poor (Borowski, 2012). Therefore, based on how much health care services one consumes or needs, it would still be unfair to increase taxes on the rich. It would also be baseless to say that the rich are prone to more chronic diseases that may take up more resources than the poor (Musgrove, 2012). It is unfair to punish people for making their way through life. Any rich person has worked hard to be where he or she is and it would be a punishment not to reward them but offer an increase in taxes for doing better than everyone else. Borowski,  J. (2012, April 30). Why Shouldn’t the Rich Pay More in Taxes? | FreedomWorks. Retrieved  April  5, 2015, from

Deontological Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Deontological Ethics - Essay Example This project aims to shed more light on deontology and virtue ethics, which are some of the principles on which philosophy is founded. The term deontology is derived from two Greek words: Deon, which means duty and logos, meaning study. Contrary to aretaic theories that normally focus on the character and personality that is instilled within us, deontology is based on the deontic theories which normally guide and asses some of the decisions that we make in our day-to-day activities. In making such decisions; nevertheless, we are expected to take into consideration the aspects of the society that are morally required, morally forbidden and are morally permitted. Concisely, we can refer to deontology as the moral aspects of our life that guides some of the decisions that we make. Deontological theories can be classified into several categories, which range from agent-centred, patent-centred, contractarian, as well as deontological theories based on Kant. The agent-centred theories hold the belief that decisions should normally be made based on objective reasoning (Burnor and Raley 426). The patent centred theories, on the other hand, argue that decisions should normally be based on the rights of various people within the society. In as much as some aspects of these theories are different, they share the ideology that choices cannot always be justified by their effects. This is to imply that no matter the moral outcome of some decisions, they should not be carried out. Unlike consequentialism, which does not take into consideration some of the aspects of society, the deontological theories have largely been appreciated. It is because they provide those who are involved in the decision-making process to consider various aspects within the society including friends, family members as well as some of the projects that are being undertaken by the community. Similarly, scholars have often argued that the deontological theories are not too demanding. This is

Health care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 27

Health care - Essay Example Since the system is already fair, the government should not take what the rich have worked hard to get. All the money that the rich give as tax goes to the welfare of all the people. The rich should therefore, be treated with equality with the poor (Musgrove, 2012). Though the government may claim that the rich have more vested interests in the nation, they are humans and increasing their tax rates on the basis of their health care consumption would mean that they have more health care demands than the poor (Borowski, 2012). Therefore, based on how much health care services one consumes or needs, it would still be unfair to increase taxes on the rich. It would also be baseless to say that the rich are prone to more chronic diseases that may take up more resources than the poor (Musgrove, 2012). It is unfair to punish people for making their way through life. Any rich person has worked hard to be where he or she is and it would be a punishment not to reward them but offer an increase in taxes for doing better than everyone else. Borowski,  J. (2012, April 30). Why Shouldn’t the Rich Pay More in Taxes? | FreedomWorks. Retrieved  April  5, 2015, from

Culture and Globalization Essay Example for Free

Culture and Globalization Essay INTRODUCTION Identity is a question that may be expressed by an anxiety and a hope at the same time. The anxiety lies in the sense of the existence of our Moroccan identity in all its dimensions, Arabo-berber, Muslim negro-African and modern. It also lies in our existence in the world in different parts of the planet where we have decided, voluntarily or not, to assert our existence; a planet that has become a finished space, a global village, surrounded by all kinds of flows, economic, human, electronic, and cultural, which are aspects of globalization; a globalization that could not only be a kind of interdependence among the national spaces which existence is still alive but also an internal phenomenon in these spaces. The advantages and disadvantages of this multiform process can diverge from one partisan to another. Some see in it the chance of a new world and others see in it the risk of an incomparable oppression. The problem of the Arabo Islamic identity or Arab identity occupies the front of the scene. The Islamic world has never been so active in the sense of the expression of identity, maybe because of the more and more enigmatic character of this identity because as Dryush Shayagan reminds, more than the ethnic and the religious identities, we find a third one in addition that emerges from modernity. He adds that the three identities fit one into the other, create more and more complex fields of interference, and exploit territories that remain most of the time incompatible with each other. He goes on declaring that today, these identical cultures are situated between the â€Å"not yet† and the â€Å"never ever†: not yet modern and never ever traditional. These identities that live henceforth, in â€Å"between the two† are totally burst according to Dryush.[1] At first glance, this triple identity raises obstacles to communication, but on the condition of succeeding in fitting out their respective spaces, it offers on the other hand, new possibilities of communication. The assertion of a reactive and massive Arabian Islamic identity was the adequate answer to the colonial dominion. Today, however, the reflection has to fit and adapt itself to the requirements of a situation namely, globalization, that orders that identity becomes seen as open, diverse and it has to be attentive to pluralism in the internal as well as the external places. We can think that the new network of information and communication will favour the emergence of new forms of citizenship susceptible to fill the current democratic deficit. Media permanently present information in the different parts of the world. With the means of information which the internet network prefigures today, the individual can have a more active role in the search for information. One can also contact a multitude of people of different nationalities, discuss problems of public interest, and express his/her opinions in public forums. GLOBALIZATION, CULTURE, AND THE MOROCCAN IDENTITY It is crucial to see globalization from an academic point of view as there is a strong link bounding globalization and culture. The global culture belongs to what Simon During calls â€Å"transnationalization.†[2] This latter is the process by which cultural products extend their actual space to emerge in a global area. Cultural studies are a kind of reaction to this process. Going deeper in this perspective, we come across many points that may link globalization to culture if we consider that culture is a local issue that may be influenced by the global market, the global sight, or may itself influence the global sphere if it is considered as a tradition or a way of life. Culture, from another view, maybe considered as the basis of the construction of one’s identity but once influences by globalization, the identity may change and we may adopt some practices and beliefs that may be no more appropriate to the local culture. Education is another point where globalization and culture meet. Students nowaydays, are no more interested by some issues tackling family or social events, but rather opt to get aware of the global economic and capitalistic changes that the actual world witnesses. Culture is a part of our identity. If we change culture, we change our identity. Stewart Hall argues that in a changing history, identity should remain the same though it is far from being the case of the modern world we’re living in and where identities are in a permanent process of change and transformation and this is the result of globalization. Always according to Hall, the construction of identity is made by the sight of the other. In other words, the negative view on the other makes of our identity a positive one. The process of constructing identity then is based on opposition. If the sight of the other makes of us who we really are, we are then no more free to chose according to our own tastes but rather chose according to others’ reactions[3]. This may seem ambiguous in a sense and annoying in another. How can globalization affect our own sense of belonging? Belonging to a particular nation and adopting a specific culture is not a matter of choice, it is because we belong to a certain ethnic group that has its own tradition, culture and religion. Once we find ourselves involved in a pre-created world, the acceptance becomes an automatic reaction, but when our sense of belonging to a cultural space or another becomes guided by the global pressures, our identity gets hurt and our mind fragmented and confused between what is ours and what is theirs (what is local and what is global). â€Å"The global popular† is the means of communication that occupies an important place in the projection of visual images to spread information (TV, satellite, internet†¦). If I insist on citing the global popular as one of the links between globalization and culture, it is because I judge it of a high importance and necessity to remind the idea that Simon During came with and which expresses the impossibility to separate the global popular from the global culture. He kept arguing that the reason was not only that both of them belong to a single globalizing system but also because the relation between various forms of cultural products are changing and transacting.[4] Similarly, Arjun Appadurai cited in his essay â€Å"Modernity at Large† one of the most important means of the circulating forms which is the â€Å"mediascape†. Like the global popular, mediascapes allow any information to become local through all kinds of the modern media. By this way the local culture may be adopted by different societies and consequently be global.[5] GLOBALIZATION AND MEDIA Today globalization arouses number of controversies. The term by itself condenses anxieties: it evokes, quite at the same time, the shrinkage of the planet bound to technological innovations and the massive impact of the triumphant capitalism that imposes its extreme dominance. Appadurai approaches, in a frontal way, the question of globalization. He put in the centre of his analysis the notion of flows. For him, what defines the contemporary world is much more circulation than structures and stable organizations. The proof is quite clear when we see people constantly moving from one place to another and the extraordinary development of mass communication with images transited throughout the planet. Until then, the individual lived and conceived himself in certain limits. From a simple geopolitical point of view, the nation state was considered as a stable referent: within it, the dimension of the local used to have a great importance conferring to each individual in a given society their privileged points of anchoring. In this context, the identical constructions occur in a permanent game of opposition between the self and the other, between the inside and the outside. But migrations on the one hand, and the media flows on the other hand, disrupted the spreading order until then. What interests Appadurai is the way this situation not only alters the material life of people but also tends to give an incomparable role to imagination. This does not mean that previously societies have not abundantly, neither in their mythological, literary nor artistic productions, appealed to this faculty. Henceforth, imagination is no more limited in some specific domains of expression, but it changes the daily practices, notably the migratory situations where migrants find themselves obliged to create in their exile a world of them by using all the images that media allow them to receive.[6] The technological progress: Internet The cable and internet offer multiple means to reconstitute communities including migrants and those who stayed in their countries. When we come across globalization of communication we inevitably think of internet. Internet is considered to be the symbol of and at the same time, a vehicle for the development of the future mediatic landscape. As a polymorphic tool spread everywhere, internet is actually inescapable in the study of the actual communication processes. If we consider internet as a media, we automatically notice that it is a quite particular one. Among modern mass media, internet is characterized by a potentially or at least virtually wide broadcasting. It is one of the facets of the internet ideology: everybody can have access to messages, everywhere and so to speak with no constraints, and at the same time, internet presents specific characteristics that make of it an exceptional media. Unlike press or radio-television that necessitate material and financial means, licenses, and a diffusion and distribution network, by internet everything is easier. Everybody can be a transmitter and everybody is potentially provider of contents but not everybody can create his/her own television station contrary to internet by which each one –or almost– can create a web site with only an online computer. All this is almost free more than the accommodating of private individuals that is also, more or less, free. If we consider internet as a media, it is then the time in the history of mass communication when each citizen and each association has the ability to play in the same ground as that of the wide mediatic groups or the big companies. Yve Thiran states that from this point of view, internet is a means of communication par excellence and it is not surprising that the excluded traditional media were the first to use it.[7] What seems to be new in the case of internet is not really the fact that it facilitates the emergence of multiple forms of sites and more or less alternative means of information, but rather the fact that the local structuralizations have voluntarily or not, reached the world as a whole. The neighbouring radio station’s diffusion is limited in the neighbourhood, while the expression on the Net may give the impression to address the whole planet. A neighbouring radio station, once installed in the web, can be heard by the whole world. Contrary to the press of radio-television, internet still looks for its place in the media landscape[8] grouping sites together, contents, services and very (too) diverse possibilities to aspire to a real unit of speech (but it is not probably the purpose of internet neither), in a social gratitude other than the connotations that can be socially planed on the new technologies of information and communication in general. In other words, as we find everything on internet, it is still its strict technical dimension that allows an observer to apprehend it, to seize it mentally and conceptually and to succeed in defining it differently. What is internet then? It is a media, a commercial space, a means of information, a shop window, and a place for exchange and expression; that is to say, so many activities where the interlocutors position themselves differently. The telephone is not a newspaper; nevertheless, internet can be at the same time a telephone and a newspaper, an advertisement hoarding and a room of debate. CONCLUSION Born Jamaican, the English cultural theorist Stuart Hall argued that identity must be understood in terms of politics of localization, of location and statement –not as a process of discovery of lost roots but as the construction of a new or emergent shape of ourselves, linked at the same time to the actual social relations and to the contemporary power relations–. While most of us clearly wish to respect most of the aspects of our tradition and history, Hall suggests that we also need, for speaking, to understand languages which we were not taught. We need to understand and revalue the traditions and inheritances of cultural expressions in a new and creative way as the context in which they are produced evolves constantly.[9] [1] Shayagan Dryush,  « La Lumià ¨re vient de l’Occident,  » Paris : l’Aube, 2001, Entretiens du XXI Sià ¨cle,  « Oà ¹ Vont les Valeurs,  » UNESCO, Abbin Michel, Paris, 2004. [2] Simon During,  « Postcolonialism and Globalization,  » Culture, Globalization and the World System, ed., Anthony King, Dinghamton, 1991. [3] Stuart Hall,  « Old and New Identities, Old and New Ethnicities,  » Culture, Globalization and the World System, Current Debates in Art History 3, State of New York: Bihghamton, 1991, pp. 41-68. [4] Arif Dirlik,  « The Local in the Global,  » Global/Local: Cultural Production and the Transnational Imaginary, eds., Rob Wilson and William Dissanayake, Durham: Duke UP, 1996. [5] Arjun Appadurai,  « Modernity at Large,  » Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, Public Worlds, Vol. 1, London: University of Minnesota Press, 1996. [6] Arjun Appadurai, Aprà ¨s le Colonialisme, Paris : Payot, 2001. [7] Yve Thiran, Sexes, Monsenges et Internet, Bruxelles : Castells-Labor, Coll.  « quartier Libre,  » 2000, p. 42. [8] Yve Thiran shows that the internet needs traditional media such as television to be able to claim the impact that it had notably during the Clinton-Lewinsky affaire. (Thiran, p. 43) [9] Stuart Hall,  « Old and New Identities, Old and New Ethnicities,  » Culture, Globalization and the World System, Current Debates in Art History 3, State of New York: Bihghamton, 1991, pp. 41-68.

The Multi Store Model And The Reconstructive Model Psychology Essay

The Multi Store Model And The Reconstructive Model Psychology Essay In this essay there are two memory models what are compared. The memory models are the Multi Store Model and the Reconstructive Model. It shows how the models work, some studies which have been done experimenting the model, advantages and disadvantages to the models. The multi store model is a theory by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). They say that memory uses a number of different processes and that there is actually more than one kind of memory store. There is three parts to the multi store model: sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The process starts at sensory memory where you use your senses: Sight, smell, hearing, touch and taste to receive and store information. The information here doesnt last very long from milliseconds to two seconds, just long enough for it to transfer to short term memory. To get to short term memory you use the process, encoding. Encoding means taking the information and making a memory trace. There are three types of encoding: Acoustic, visual and semantic. Acoustic is repeating the topic; you would say or sing the words in your head. Visual is where you would try to see the topic in your head and try to picture it. Semantic encoding is what it means to you e.g. a favourite birthday present, someth ing that has a personal meaning. If the information is not attended to from sensory memory to short term memory this can be lost. The information that has been attended to then rehearsed will go to store in long term memory. (AS Level Psychology) Peterson and Peterson (1959) did a study that supported the multi store model for the duration of short term memory; they named the study Trigram Retention Experiment also known as TRE. The study was highly controlled and the people all started on the same base level. Their aim of the study was to see what the duration of short term memory would be if you did no rehearsal. When they tested this, the people who partook in the trigram, were read three letters. These three constanants were randomly picked and had no meaning e.g. CWT. immediately after been given this the people had to count backwards in threes starting with a very large three digit number. This was called the distractor task they had to do it for a specified time and it was designed so that you could not rehearse the TRE. The time period was called The retention interval and this varied from 3 seconds to 18 seconds. Then when told, the people had to recall the trigram. The letters had to be said exactly the same. They f ound that nearly all the people who recalled after a three second retention interval were successful. Then when they did it at 18 seconds, only very few people could recall the TRE. Doing this study found out that without rehearsing things the duration of short term memory is very short. So this shows that without rehearsal memory is very limited. There were criticisms to this theory though, it was said that the distractor task did prevent rehearsal, but it also meant that the people were doing an additional processing task so this may have affected their recall scores. (Essential AS Psychology for AQA, Richard Gross and Geoff Rolls) Shallice and Warrington (1970) also did a study which supported the multi store model they reported a case where someone had, had a motorbike accident. This resulted in him now having extremely poor short term memory. However his short term memory what he couldnt remember was only for verbal information. His visual and acoustic was normal. This suggests there is more than one type of short term memory, not incorporated in the multi store model. He could only remember one or two digits. Yet his long term memory after the accident was normal. This is in support with the multi store model, because it provides evidence to show that short term memory and long term memory stores are separate. The reconstructive model of memory was a theory by Bartlett (1932). He said that memory is unlike a camera, that its not accurate and the interpretations are based on each persons memories and previous experiences. (Essential Psychology). People tend to be selective about what bit of event they remember. This can be a problem though when needing an accurate recall. Schemas are a major part in reconstructive memory. Schemas are our own ready made expectation of a scenario. They fill the gaps in our own knowledge. Schemas can lead to memory distortions when information doesnt already fit in to the existing schemas we have. There is also a lot of influence to memory from stereo-typing and cultural expectations. (Essential AS Psychology). The eye witness testimony also known as EWT is for criminal incidents that people have seen. Eye witness testimony may not always be accurate; it can be influences by a lot of different things like anxiety, age and even leading questions. If you were to witness a crime it would make you anxious. There are advantages to knowing that the eye witness testimony is not always accurate, this warns us and helps us to know we do have to treat with care. Bartlett (1932) did a study on the reconstructive memory called War of the Ghosts. He did this study to investigate the effect of previous experiences and expectations have on memory recall. A group of people were shown a drawing or a short story, which was the war of the ghosts, to look and read through. The group of people then had to reproduce the story or drawing after different time periods. The time periods ranged from fifteen minutes to years later, this was called a repeated reproduction technique. Over time they found that the group of people produced shorter more clear and carefully thought out versions, more ordinary. They had made the story sound more normal e.g. instead of using the word canoes they used the word boats. They only recalled the basic storyline. In conclusion to this study they found that an explanation or opinion plays a major role in remembering. An active process of reconstruction is remembering, Bartlett called this the effort after meaning, that is mak ing the past more ordinary and normal so that it fits in to our existing knowledge or schemas. This study in psychology is regarded as a classic. Although there are criticisms to this study, It was said that it was a poorly controlled study that Bartlett may have been biased in the interpretations of the different stories. There was also another argument saying the story was very different and unusual. There have been other studies which have done real life everyday memories, which over time were successful. The study was by Wynn and Logie (1998). There is also the study of the unreliability of the eye witness testimony which was done by Loftus and Palmer (1974). They studied smash/ contacted car speed study. The aim of this study was to investigate an immediate recall from the effect of language the group of people use after being asked leading questions. The group of people were shown some slides of an accident which involved two cars. The group were split into two groups, by asking some about how fast were the cars going when they smashed in to each other? for the other set of people they were asked the same but instead of using the word smashed they said hit, bumped and contacted. From doing this study they found that from using different words peoples opinions of the speed were very different. The difference of using the word smashed was higher than the ones who were asked bumped, hit and contacted. So this proves there is an effect when using leading questions. The reconstructive model does provide us with a good explanation of everyday memory. But that we dont have perfect memories. There are disadvantages to the reconstructive memory model there is no information on how we can improve our memory. Also it is more opinion based, because this model of memory assumes that memories are so complicated. Some predictions cannot be made, so we cannot predict what information will be and wont be remembered, as we dont know what a persons schemas are. In conclusion to this, Atkinson and Schiffrins model of the multi store model is one of the best known models of memory, but this doesnt necessarily mean its the best theory. Its a very simple and straight forward theory, but in some ways its too simplistic. It shows that rehearsal doesnt always work, and that you cannot rehearse smells and sights. The reconstructive model is more reliable as its based more on everyday life. It explains that the eye witness testimony is not always accurate and not to fully trust it as much. It also states that we dont have perfect memories. The reconstructive model also helps us to understand how our previous knowledge effects our interpretations of memory.